Urinary tract infection (suspected)

Any person, 4 weeks to 15 years, presenting with urinary symptoms suggestive of a urinary tract infection including but not limited to dysuria, urinary frequency, odorous urine, haematuria with or without fever.

History prompts, signs and symptoms

These are not exhaustive lists. Maintain an open mind and be aware of cognitive bias.

Red flags

Recognise: identify indicators of actual or potential clinical severity and risk of deterioration.

Respond: carefully consider alternative ECAT protocol. Escalate as per clinical reasoning and local CERS protocol, and continue treatment.

Clinical assessment and specified intervention (A to G)

If the patient has any Yellow or Red Zone observations or additional criteria (as per the relevant NSW Standard Emergency Observation Chart), refer and escalate as per local CERS protocol and continue treatment.

Position

Assessment	Intervention
General appearance/first impressions	Position of comfort

Airway

Assessment	Intervention
Patency of airway	Maintain airway patency Consider airway opening manoeuvres and positioning

Breathing

Assessment	Intervention
Respiratory rate and work of breathing Consider auscultation of chest (breath sounds) Oxygen saturation (SpO2)	Assist ventilation as clinically indicated Apply oxygen to maintain SpO2 over 93%

Circulation

Assessment	Intervention
Perfusion (capillary refill, skin warmth and colour) Heart rate Blood pressure Cardiac rhythm	Assess circulation Attach cardiac monitor if BP/HR are within the Yellow or Red Zones, or where clinically relevant, e.g. irregular pulse, palpitations, syncope, shock, respiratory compromise, cardiac history or clinical concern Consider 12 lead ECG
IVC and/or pathology	Insert IV cannula, if trained and clinically indicated If unable to obtain IV access, consider intraosseous, if trained See pathology section
Signs of shock: tachycardia and CRT 3 seconds and over and/or abnormal skin perfusion and/or hypotension	If signs of shock present, give sodium chloride 0.9% at 20 mL/kg IV/intraosseous bolus once only, maximum dose 1000 mL

Disability

Assessment	Intervention
AVPU	If AVPU shows reduced level of consciousness, continue to assess GCS, pupillary response and limb strength
GCS, pupillary response and limb strength	Obtain baseline and repeat assessment as clinically indicated
Pain	Assess pain. If indicated, give early analgesia as per analgesia section then resume A to G assessment

Exposure

Assessment	Intervention
Temperature	Measure temperature
Head-to-toe inspection, including posterior surfaces	Check and document any abnormalities Inspect indwelling urinary devices if present Assess for blockages, kinks, blood or sedimentation

Fluids

Assessment	Intervention
Hydration status	Assess fluids, in and out. Document on fluid balance chart. Include gastrointestinal losses
Nausea and/or vomiting	If present, see nausea and/or vomiting section

Glucose

Assessment

Intervention

BGL

Measure BGL, where clinically relevant or of concern. See medication table for 40% glucose gel dosing If BGL between 2 mmol/L and 3 mmol/L and NOT symptomatic (Yellow Zone criteria): give quick-acting carbohydrate: Up to 12 months: milk feed and/or 40% glucose gel, buccal 12 months and over: sugary soft drink or fruit juice or 40% glucose gel, buccal reassess BGL in 15–30 minutes and repeat treatment until BGL over 3 mmol/L If BGL less than 2 mmol/L OR symptomatic (Red Zone criteria) OR unable to tolerate oral glucose: give 40% glucose gel buccally in incremental doses, as tolerated, while establishing IV access escalate as per local CERS protocol

Focused assessment

Complete an abdominal focused assessment.

Complete a dehydration focused assessment.

Precautions and notes

• Consider more serious illness in infants less than three months old.
• Signs of a urinary tract infection can be non-specific in young children and may include fever, vomiting, poor feeding, lethargy and irritability.
• Nappy rash, vulvovaginitis, balanitis, cellulitis and threadworm can cause localised pain and discomfort in the genital area. Provide analgesia and comfort measures.
• If sexual abuse is suspected or disclosed refer to local sexual assault protocols.

Interventions and diagnostics

Specific treatment

Urinary retention

• Urinary retention may occur with dysuria.
• Patient may experience abdominal distention, discomfort and absence of urine.
• Provide appropriate analgesia.
• Assess bladder with a bedside bladder scanner, if available.
• Place the child in a warm bath to encourage urination.
• If unable to pass urine, a catheter may need to be placed to empty the bladder.
• Escalate as per local CERS protocol for management advice.

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Analgesia

If pain score 1–6 (mild–moderate):

Give paracetamol 15 mg/kg orally once only, maximum dose 1000 mg

and/or ibuprofen, if 3 months and over, 10 mg/kg orally once only, maximum dose 400 mg

If severe pain present, give analgesia and escalate as per local CERS protocol.

Consider non-pharmacological pain relief (appendix).

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Nausea and/or vomiting

If nausea and/or vomiting is present and over 6 months give:

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Procedural analgesia

For pain relief required during procedures only, not used to replace appropriate analgesia.

Sucrose 24%

• 1–18 months: give 1–2 mL orally per procedure
• Maximum dose:
  • 1–3 months: up to 5 mL in 24 hours
  • 3–18 months: up to 10 mL in 24 hours.

Repeat as needed up to the maximum dose.

Nitrous oxide and oxygen mix inhalation

Only give nitrous:

• if required education and training have been completed
• according to state and local guidelines
• when an additional trained clinician is available to complete the procedure.

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Radiology

Not usually indicated. If there is concern for urgent radiology, escalate care as per local CERS protocol.

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Pathology

• Urinalysis
  • Patient who can void in the toilet: mid-stream urine
  • Patient who is not toilet trained: clean catch or catheter urine
  • Send for MC&S. Keep the sample refrigerated if transport is delayed
  • Refer to urine sampling appendix for further detail
• Seriously unwell child: FBC, UEC, blood cultures

Medications

The patient’s weight is mandatory for calculating fluid and medication doses.

The Broselow Tape or APLS weight table (appendix) can be used only in circumstances where the patient cannot be weighed.

The shaded sections in this protocol are only to be used by registered nurses who have completed the required education.

Medications with contraindications or requiring dose adjustment are marked:

• ^H for patients with known hepatic impairment
• ^R for patients with known renal impairment.

Escalate to medical or nurse practitioner.

Evidence informed	Information was drawn from evidence-based guidelines and a review of latest available research. For more information, see the development process.
Collaboration	This protocol was developed by the ECAT Working Group, led by the Agency for Clinical Innovation. The group involved expert medical, nursing and allied health representatives from local health districts across NSW. Consensus was reached on all recommendations included within this protocol.
Currency	Due for review: Jan 2026. Based on a regular review cycle.
Feedback	Email ACI-ECIs@health.nsw.gov.au