Any person, 4 weeks to 15 years, presenting with a fever or history of fever of 38°C and above, without focus.
This protocol is intended to be used by registered and enrolled nurses within their scope of practice and as outlined in The Use of Emergency Care Assessment and Treatment Protocols (PD2024_011). Sections marked triangle or diamond indicate the need for additional prerequisite education prior to use. Check the medication table for dose adjustments and links to relevant reference texts.
- Infants less than 3 months with fever are at an increased risk of serious illness. Escalate as per local CERS protocol and continue management.
- If sepsis is suspected switch to sepsis (suspected) protocol.
History prompts, signs and symptoms
These are not exhaustive lists. Maintain an open mind and be aware of cognitive bias.
History prompts
- Presenting complaint
- Onset of symptoms
- Duration of fever
- Activity levels
- Fluid intake and output
- Pain assessment
- Pre-hospital treatment
- Past admissions
- Medical and surgical history
- Sick contacts
- Recent travel
- Current medications
- Known allergies
- Immunisation status
- Current weight
Signs and symptoms
- Pallor
- Rigors
- Localised pain
- Decreased activity levels
- Irritable
- Decreased oral intake
- Decreased urine output
- Vomiting and/or diarrhoea
- Rash
Red flags
Recognise: identify indicators of actual or potential clinical severity and risk of deterioration.
Respond: carefully consider alternative ECAT protocol. Escalate as per clinical reasoning and local CERS protocol, and continue treatment.
Historical
- Less than 3 months
- Fever lasting more than 5 days
- Prematurity
- Central venous access device (CVAD) in situ
- Immunosuppressed
- Previous sepsis
- Non or incomplete immunisation, including infants less than 6 months old
- Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander, Pacific Islander or Maori origin
Clinical
- Altered level of consciousness or floppy
- Stiff neck
- Bulging fontanelle
- Mottled or cyanosed
- Capillary refill time 3 seconds and over
- Non-blanching rash
- Fever of over 5 days with symptoms suggestive of Kawasaki disease:
- strawberry tongue
- erythematous rash to trunk and limbs
- conjunctival injection
- oedema to hands and feet
- lymphadenopathy
- Weak, continuous or high-pitched cry
- Lethargy
- Limb and/or joint pain
Remember child or adolescent at risk: patient or carer concern, suspected non-accidental injury or neglect, multiple comorbidities or unplanned return.
If the patient has a fever with focus, switch to the appropriate ECAT protocol.
Clinical assessment and specified intervention (A to G)
If the patient has any Yellow or Red Zone observations or additional criteria (as per the relevant NSW Standard Emergency Observation Chart), refer and escalate as per local CERS protocol and continue treatment.
Position
Assessment | Intervention |
---|---|
General appearance/first impressions | Position of comfort |
Airway
Assessment | Intervention |
---|---|
Patency of airway | Maintain airway patency Consider airway opening manoeuvres and positioning |
Breathing
Assessment | Intervention |
---|---|
Respiratory rate and work of breathing Auscultate chest (breath sounds) Oxygen saturation (SpO2) | Assist ventilation as clinically indicated Apply oxygen to maintain SpO2 over 93% If wheeze present, consider bronchiolitis (suspected) protocol or wheeze (including viral-induced or suspected asthma) protocol If barking cough or stridor present, consider croup-like illness protocol |
Circulation
Assessment | Intervention |
---|---|
Perfusion (capillary refill, skin warmth and colour) Heart rate Blood pressure Cardiac rhythm | Assess circulation Attach cardiac monitor if BP/HR are within the Yellow or Red Zones, or where clinically relevant, e.g. irregular pulse, palpitations, syncope, shock, respiratory compromise, cardiac history or clinical concern Consider 12 lead ECG |
IVC and/or pathology | Insert IV cannula, if trained and clinically indicated If unable to obtain IV access, consider intraosseous, if trained |
Signs of shock: tachycardia and CRT 3 seconds and over and/or abnormal skin perfusion and/or hypotension | If signs of shock present, give sodium chloride 0.9% at 20 mL/kg IV/intraosseous bolus, once only, maximum dose 1000 mL and consider sepsis (suspected) protocol |
Disability
Assessment | Intervention |
---|---|
AVPU | If AVPU shows reduced level of consciousness, continue to assess GCS, pupillary response and limb strength |
GCS, pupillary response and limb strength | Obtain baseline and repeat assessment as clinically indicated |
Pain | Assess pain. If indicated, give early analgesia as per analgesia section then resume A to G assessment |
Exposure
Assessment | Intervention |
---|---|
Temperature | Measure temperature If unwell or systemic features, consider sepsis (suspected) protocol
Hypothermia or temperature instability may occur in infants under 3 months |
Head-to-toe inspection, including posterior surfaces | Check and document any abnormalities Urgent management is required for patients who are unwell with petechial or purpuric rash. Switch to sepsis (suspected) protocol |
Fluids
Assessment | Intervention |
---|---|
Hydration status | Assess fluids, in and out. Document on fluid balance chart. Include gastrointestinal losses |
Nausea and/or vomiting | If present, see nausea and/or vomiting section |
Glucose
Assessment | Intervention |
---|---|
BGL |
Measure BGL. See medication table for 40% glucose gel dosing If BGL between 2 mmol/L and 3 mmol/L and NOT symptomatic (Yellow Zone criteria):
If BGL less than 2 mmol/L OR symptomatic (Red Zone criteria) OR unable to tolerate oral glucose:
Once stabilised, give patient long-acting carbohydrate and continue to check BGL hourly, or as clinically indicated |
Repeat and document assessment and observations to monitor responses to interventions, identify developing trends and clinical deterioration. Escalate care as required according to the local CERS protocol.
Focused assessment
Consider dehydration focused assessment.
Precautions and notes
- Antipyretics can be given to alleviate the discomforts of fever.
- Febrile convulsions are generally benign and do not require investigations or management.
- Most episodes of fever in children are mild or self-limiting, however they can be challenging to distinguish from serious infection.
- The degree of the fever is not a reliable predictor of serious illness.
- If tachycardia and/or respiratory distress remain despite analgesia, consider the potential for serious illness and escalate care as required.
- Infants less than 3 months old may not have characteristic signs of serious illness.
- Pathology is often not required in infants over 3 months without signs of systemic illness.
Interventions and diagnostics
Analgesia
If pain score 1–6 (mild–moderate):
Give paracetamol 15 mg/kg orally once only, maximum dose 1000 mg
and/or ibuprofen, if 3 months and over, 10 mg/kg orally once only, maximum dose 400 mg
If severe pain present, give analgesia and escalate as per local CERS protocol.
Consider non-pharmacological pain relief (appendix).
Nausea and/or vomiting
If nausea and/or vomiting is present and over 6 months give:
ondansetron:
- 8–15 kg: 2 mg, orally once only
- 15–30 kg: 4 mg, orally once only
- Over 30 kg: 8 mg, orally once only.
Procedural analgesia
For pain relief required during procedures only, not used to replace appropriate analgesia.
Sucrose 24%
- 1–18 months: give 1–2 mL orally per procedure
- Maximum dose:
- 1–3 months: up to 5 mL in 24 hours
- 3–18 months: up to 10 mL in 24 hours.
Repeat as needed up to the maximum dose.
Radiology
Radiology will depend on the working diagnosis. It needs to be requested by a medical or nurse practitioner. If there is concern for urgent radiology, escalate as per local CERS protocol.
Pathology
- Urinalysis
- Patient who can void in the toilet: mid-stream urine
- Patient who is not toilet trained: clean catch or catheter urine
- Send for MC&S. Keep the sample refrigerated if transport is delayed
- Refer to urine sampling appendix for further detail
- Seriously unwell person: FBC, UEC, glucose, CRP, VBG with lactate, blood cultures
Medications
The patient’s weight is mandatory for calculating fluid and medication doses.
The Broselow Tape or APLS weight table (appendix) can be used only in circumstances where the patient cannot be weighed.
The shaded sections in this protocol are only to be used by registered nurses who have completed the required education.
Drag the table right to view more columns or turn your phone to landscape
Drug | Dose | Route | Frequency |
---|---|---|---|
Up to 25 kg: 25 kg and over: | IM | Once only | |
2 mL/kg | Slow IV injection | Once only | |
Glucose 40% gel | 4 weeks–1 year: 1–5 years: 5 g 6–11 years: 10 g 12 years and over : 15 g | Buccal | Repeat after 15 minutes if required |
Ibuprofen H, R | 3 months and over: Maximum dose 400 mg | Oral | Pain score 1–10 Once only |
Over 6 months and 8–15 kg: 15–30 kg: Over 30 kg: | Oral | Once only | |
0.25–15 L/min, device dependent | Inhalation | Continuous | |
15 mg/kg Maximum dose 1000 mg | Oral | Pain score 1–10 Once only | |
20 mL/kg Maximum dose 1000 mL | IV/intraosseous | Bolus Once only | |
1–18 months: Maximum dose 3–18 months: | Oral | Used during procedures only Repeat if required to maximum dose |
Medications with contraindications or requiring dose adjustment are marked:
- H for patients with known hepatic impairment
- R for patients with known renal impairment.
Escalate to medical or nurse practitioner.
References
- The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne. Clinical practice guidelines: Febrile child. Melbourne: Victoria Health; 2019 [cited 1 Mar 2023]. Available from: https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/Febrile_child/
- The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne. Clinical practice guidelines: Febrile seizure. Melbourne: Victoria Health; 2019 [cited 1 Mar 2023]. Available from: https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/Febrile_seizure/
- Agency for Clinical Innovation. Rural Paediatric Emergency Clinical Guidelines - Third Edition. Sydney: NSW Health; 2021 [cited 28 Feb 2023]. Available from: https://www1.health.nsw.gov.au/pds/Pages/doc.aspx?dn=GL2021_011
- Bakalli I, Klironomi D, Kola E, et al. The management of fever in children. Minerva Pediatr (Torino). 2022 Oct;74(5):568-78. DOI: 10.23736/s2724-5276.22.06680-0
- MIMS Australia. Clinical Resources. Australia: MIMS Australia Pty Ltd; 2022 [cited 2 Feb 2023]. Available from: https://www.mimsonline.com.au.acs.hcn.com.au/Search/Search.aspx
- NSW Health. Australian Medicines Handbook. Australia: Australian Government, NSW; 2022 [cited 23 Feb 2023]. Available from: https://amhonline.amh.net.au.acs.hcn.com.au/
- NSW Health. AMH Children's Dosing Companion. Australia: Australian Government, NSW; 2023 [cited 23 Feb 2023]. Available from: https://childrens.amh.net.au/auth
- Palazzi D. Fever of unknown origin in children: Evaluation. UpToDate: Wolters Kluwer; 2023 [cited 10 March 2023]. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/fever-of-unknown-origin-in-children-evaluation?search=Fever%20%20Paediatric%20&source=search_result&selectedTitle=3~150&usage_type=default&display_rank=3
- The Sydney Children's Hospital Network. Meds 4 Kids Dosing Guide. Australia: NSW Health; 2023 [cited 23 Feb 2023]. Available from: https://webapps.schn.health.nsw.gov.au/meds4kids/
Evidence informed |
Information was drawn from evidence-based guidelines and a review of latest available research. For more information, see the development process. |
Collaboration |
This protocol was developed by the ECAT Working Group, led by the Agency for Clinical Innovation. The group involved expert medical, nursing and allied health representatives from local health districts across NSW. Consensus was reached on all recommendations included within this protocol. |
Currency | Due for review: Jan 2026. Based on a regular review cycle. |
Feedback | Email ACI-ECIs@health.nsw.gov.au |
Accessed from the Emergency Care Institute website at https://aci.health.nsw.gov.au/ecat/paediatric/fever-of-unknown-origin